Exploring Coaching Leadership Behaviours in Strength and Conditioning Coaching: Preferences of NCAA Division I and II Collegiate Student-Athletes Based on Task Dependence

Authors

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.58524/002024336600

Keywords:

Coaching, Coaching behaviour, Coaching effectiveness, Leadership, Strength, Conditioning.

Abstract

To explore collegiate student-athletes? preferences of coaching leadership behaviours in strength and conditioning (SnC) coaching and evaluate differences between the preferences of coaching leadership behaviours based on task dependence. Method a total of 145 National Collegiate Athletic Association student-athletes (independent sports athletes = 48, interdependent sports athletes = 97), aged 18-25 years, with a mean = 3 (SD = ±1) SnC sessions per week, participated. Participants completed an electronic questionnaire involving the athletes? preference version of the Revised Leadership Scale for SnC. Results summary statistics revealed that the most favoured behaviour was 'training and instruction', median = 4.5 (IQR = 1.0), while the least favoured was ?autocratic?, median = 2.0 (IQR = 0.5). Independent sports athletes preferred training and instruction more (median = 5.0, IQR = 0.6) than interdependent sports athletes (median = 4.5, IQR = 1.0). Interdependent sports athletes preferred social support more (median = 3.5, IQR = 1.0) than independent sports athletes (median = 3.0, IQR = 0.6). The observation of a marginal statistically significant difference for social support suggests task-dependence-based variations (p = 0.018). However, small effect sizes indicate that differences are not practically significant. Conclusion and recommendation: this study presents insights into the preferences of coaching leadership behaviours among student-athletes in SnC coaching. It highlights key behaviours such as training and instruction, positive feedback, situational considerations, and social support. These findings inform coaching practice and provide a foundation for further research into coaching leadership behaviours in SnC coaching.

Author Biographies

  • Severiano Tiberi, Cardiff Metropolitan University

    Severiano Tiberi, MSc, CSCS, is pursuing a PhD in Strength and Conditioning Coaching at Cardiff Metropolitan University. He is a Certitified Strength and Conditioning Specialist of the NSCA and a Basketball England Certified Coach. He combines his research with industry-based practical roles. Currently, he serves as an assistant basketball coach for WBBL at Cardiff Met Archers, also being actively engaged with the men’s BUCS setup. Additionally, he oversees strength and conditioning at St. David’s College Basketball Academy.

  • Joseph I. Esformes, Cardiff Metropolitan University
    Dr. Joseph I. Esformes, MSc, PhD, CSCS, has been a full-time university lecturer since 2005 and is currently a Senior Lecturer in Strength and Conditioning at Cardiff Metropolitan University and a lecturer for Functional Movement Systems (FMS, USA), delivering courses on the Functional Movement Screen and corrective exercise. He is on the advisory board for FMS Schools and the board of directors for the International Association of Strength and Conditioning (IASC). Previously, Joseph taught Exercise Physiology at the University of Leeds and Sports Conditioning at Hartpury University. His research is in strength and conditioning and cardiovascular physiology, and he supervises several applied research PhD students. He has published in peer-reviewed journals and presented at international conferences in North America and Europe.
  • George Jennings, Cardiff Metropolitan University

    Dr. George Jennings is Senior Lecturer in Sport Sociology at Cardiff Metropolitan University, where he leads the MA Sport, Ethics and Society course and the MRes Critical Social Science of Sport, Health and Education pathway. George is a social scientist and qualitative researcher with interests in martial arts and combat sports, alternative physical culture, native games and human movement for health and wellbeing.

  • Steve Cooper, Cardiff Metropolitan University
    Professor Steve Cooper is a Professor of Applied Biostatistics and a sport scientist with broad teaching and research interests and expertise in sport performance, physical fitness, Physical Education, physical literacy, coaching, measurement issues, research design, applied biostatistics and data analysis. He is an elected Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society, an elected Fellow of the National Centre for Excellence in the Teaching of Mathematics, and he is a Fellow of the Higher Education Academy.
  • Jeremy Moody, Cardiff Metropolitan University, UNITED KINGDOM; Nisantasi University, TURKEY

    Dr. Jeremy Moody is a Reader in Applied Strength and Conditioning and Programme Director for the MSc/MRes in Strength and Conditioning at Cardiff Metropolitan University, and an Adjunct Professor in Human Performance at Nisantasi University, Istanbul. Industry based roles have included Regional Lead at the English Institute of Sport, Performance Manager at UK Athletics, Performance Director for the Great Britain Wheelchair Rugby Association, Performance Director and Chief Operations Officer at Welsh Judo. Jeremy has consulted to Sport Wales, Sport England, UK Sport, various National Governing Bodies and professional sports teams. A member of the UKSCA Board of Directors on a number of occasions and Chairman during 2010 – 2012, Jeremy was one of the inaugural groups to establish the current UKSCA accreditation procedure (ASCC).

References

Abbott, M. (2017). Independent sample T test. In M. Abbot (Ed.), Using statistics in the social and health sciences with SPSS and Excel (pp. 207-254). Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley.

Abraham, A., Collins, D., & Martindale, R. (2006). The coaching schematic: Validation through expert coach consensus. Journal of Sports Sciences, 24(6), 549-564. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410500189173.

Aleksic-Veljkovic, A., Djurovic, D., Dimic, I., & Mujanovic, R. (2016). College athletes’ perceptions of coaching behaviours: differences between individual and team sports. Baltic Journal of Sport and Heath Sciences. 101(2), 61-71. http://dx.doi.org/10.33607/bjshs.v2i101.57.

Arthur, C.A., & Bastardoz, N. (2020). Leadership in Sport. In G. Tenenbaum, & R.C. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of Sport Psychology, (4th ed., pp. 344-371). Hoboken: NJ Wiley.

Bachkirova, T., Cox, E., & Clutterbuck, D. (2018). Introduction. In: E. Cox, T. Bachkirova, & D. Clutterbuck (Eds.), The Complete Handbook of Coaching, (3rd ed., pp. xxix-xlviii). Thousand Oaks: CA, Sage.

Baron, L., Morin, L., & Morin, D. (2011). Executive coaching: The effect of working alliance discrepancy on the development of coaches' self-efficacy. Journal of Management Development, 30(9), 847-864. https://doi.org/10.1108/02621711111164330.

Beam, J.W. (2001). Preferred Leadership of NCAA Division I and II Intercollegiate Student- Athletes [Doctoral dissertation, University of North Florida]. UNF Digital Commons. https://digitalcommons.unf.edu/etd/166.

Beam, J.W., Serwatka, T.S., & Wilson, W.J. (2004). Preferred leadership of NCAA Division I and II intercollegiate student-athletes. Journal of Sport Behavior, 27(1), 3-17.

Boyce, L.A., Jackson, R.J., & Neal, L. (2010). Building successful leadership coaching relationships: Examining impact of matching criteria in a leadership coaching program. Journal of Management Development, 29(10), 914-931. https://doi.org/10.1108/02621711011084231.

Brooks, D.D., Ziatz, D., Johnson, B., & Hollander, D. (2000). Leadership behaviour and job responsibilities of NCAA Division 1A strength and conditioning coaches. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 14(4), 483-492. https://doi.org/10.1519/00124278-200011000-00018.

Chelladurai, P. (1993). Leadership. In R.N., Singer, M. Murphey, & L.K. Tennant (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Sport Psychology (pp. 647-671). Oxford: Maxwell Macmillan International.

Chelladurai, P. (2007). Leadership in sports. In G. Tenenbaum, & R.C. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of Sport Psychology (3rd ed., pp. 113-135). Hoboken: NJ Wiley.

Chelladurai, P., & Carron, A.V. (1981). Applicability to youth sports of the leadership scale for sports. Perceptual and motor skills, 53(2), 361-362. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1981.53.2.361.

Chelladurai, P., & Kim, A. (2023). Leadership. In P. Chelladurai, & A. Kim (Eds.), Human resource management in sport and recreation (4th ed., pp. 227-252). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, Inc.

Chelladurai, P., & Saleh, S.D. (1980). Dimensions of leader behaviour in sports: development of a leadership scale. Journal of Sport Psychology, 2(1), 34-45. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsp.2.1.34.

Chesters, R. (2013). What Makes a Good Practitioner in Strength and Conditioning? [Unpublished Bachelor’s Dissertation]. Cardiff Metropolitan University.

Cohen, J. (1988). The t-test for means. In J. Cohen (Ed.), Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioural Sciences (2nd ed., pp. 19-66). Hillsdale, N.J: L. Erlbaum Associates.

Cruz, A.B., & Kim, H.D. (2017). Leadership Preferences of Adolescent Players in Sport: Influence of Coach Gender. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 16(2), 172-179.

Cummins, P., O'Boyle, I., & Cassidy, T. (2018). Coaching effectiveness and leadership: a theoretical perspective. In P. Cummins, I. O'Boyle, & T. Cassidy (Eds.), Leadership in Sports Coaching: A Social Identity Perspective (1st ed., pp. 6–27). Routledge.

Dorgo, S. (2009). Unfolding the Practical Knowledge of an Expert Strength and Conditioning Coach. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 4(1), 17–30. https://doi.org/10.1260/1747-9541.4.1.17.

Eisner, M.T., Elder, C., Elder, A.S., & Kelly, C. (2014). Collegiate athletes' perceptions on the importance of strength and conditioning coaches and their contribution to increased athletic performance. Journal of Athletic Enhancement, 3(2). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265086611_Collegiate_athletes'_perceptions_of_the_importance_of_strength_and_conditioning_coaches_and_their_contribution_to_increased_athletic_performance.

Fiedler, F.E., Osgood, C.E., Stolurow, L.M., & Triandis, H.C. (1963). A Contingency model for the prediction of leadership effectiveness (Report No. 10). University of Illinois. https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/AD0409275.pdf.

Foulds, S.J., Hoffmann, S.M., Hinck, K., & Fraser, C. (2019). The Coach–Athlete Relationship in Strength and Conditioning: High Performance Athletes' Perceptions. Sports, 7(12), 244. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports7120244.

Fraser, C., Mackenzie, B., Foulds, S.J., Hinck, C., & Hoffmann, S.M. (2022). Behaviours and Actions of the Strength and Conditioning Coach in Fostering a Positive Coach-Athlete Relationship. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 36(11), 3256-3263. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000004073.

Gallo, G.J., & De Marco, G.M. (2008). Self-assessment and modification of a Division I strength and conditioning coach's instructional behaviour. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 22(4), 1228-1235. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e318173dae9.

Gearity, B. (2003). The Revised leadership scale for strength and conditioning [Unpublished master's thesis]. University of Tennessee.

Gilbert, W., & Baldis, M. (2014). Becoming an Effective Strength and Conditioning Coach. Strength and Conditioning Journal, 36(1), 28-34. https://doi.org/10.1519/SSC.0000000000000026.

Gilbert, W., & Trudel, P. (2004). Analysis of Coaching Science Research Published from 1970-2001. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 75(4), 388-399. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2004.10609172.

Gillham, A., Doscher, M., Krumpos, J., Diltz, M.M., Moe, N., Allen, S., & Bridgeman, R. (2019). A roundtable with college strength and conditioning coaches: working with sport coaches. International Sport Coaching Journal, 6(1), 98-109. https://doi.org/10.1123/iscj.2018-0047.

Greenslade, A., & Williams, G. (2019, June 04). What Does Good Coaching Look Like?'; Youth Athlete Perceptions of Effective Strength and Conditioning Coaching in a Leading UK Talent Development Environment. Millfield Institute of Sport and Well-being. https://millfieldinstitutewellbeing.sport.blog/2019/06/04/what-does-good-coaching-look-like-youth-athlete-perceptions-of-effective-strength-and-conditioning-coaching-in-a-leading-uk-talent-development-environment/

Griffo, J.M., Jensen, M., Anthony, C.C., Baghurst, T., & Kulinna, P.H. (2019). A decade of research literature in sport coaching (2005–2015). International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 14(2), 205–215. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747954118825058.

Hartshorn, M.D., Read, P.J., Bishop, C., & Turner, A.N. (2016). Profile of a Strength and Conditioning Coach: Backgrounds, Duties, and Perceptions. Strength and Conditioning Journal, 38(6), 89-94. https://doi.org/10.1519/SSC.0000000000000255.

Jones, D., & Newland, A. (2022). Implementing effective coaching behaviours and pedagogical practices into strength and conditioning. Strength and Conditioning Journal, 44(3), 80-87. https://doi.org/10.1519/SSC.0000000000000671.

Kraemer, W.J., Ratamess, N.A., Flanagan, S.D., Shurley, J.P., Todd, J.S., & Todd, T.C. (2017). Understanding the science of resistance training: An evolutionary perspective. Sports Med, 47(12), 2415-2435. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-017-0779-y.

LaPlaca, D.A., & Schempp, P.G. (2020). The Characteristics Differentiating Expert and Competent Strength and Conditioning Coaches. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 91(3), 488-499. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2019.1686451.

Law, H. (2013). Definitions: coaching psychology, coaching, mentoring and learning. In H. Law (Ed.), Coaching psychology: A practitioner guide (pp. 43-50). Hoboken: Wiley.

Lee, W.O., Magnusen, M.J., & Cho, S. (2013). Strength Coach-Athlete Compatibility: Roles of Coaching Behaviours and Athlete Gender. International Journal of Applied Sports Sciences, 25(1), 55-67. https://doi.org/10.24985/ijass.2013.25.1.55.

Magnusen, M.J. (2010). Differences in Strength and Conditioning Coach Self-Perception of Leadership Style Behaviours at the National Basketball Association, Division I-A, and Division II Levels. Journal of strength and conditioning research, 24(6), 1440–1450. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181d321ec.

Magnusen, M.J., & Rhea, D.J. (2009). Division I athletes' attitudes toward and preferences for male and female strength and conditioning coaches. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 23(4), 1084-1090. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e318199d8c4.

Massey, D.C., Maneval, M.W., Phillips, J., Vincent, J., White, G., & Zoeller, B. (2002). An analysis of teaching and coaching behaviours of elite strength and conditioning coaches. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 16(3), 456-460. https://doi.org/10.1519/00124278-200208000-00019.

National Collegiate Athletics Association (2023, August 01). NCAA Directory. https://web3.ncaa.org/directory/

Passmore, J. (2010). A grounded theory study of the coachee experience: The implications for training and practice in coaching psychology. International Coaching Psychology Review, 5(1), 48-62. https://doi.org/10.53841/bpsicpr.2010.5.1.48.

Salter, T., & Gannon, J.M. (2015). Exploring shared and distinctive aspects of coaching and mentoring approaches through six disciplines. European Journal of Training and Development, 39(5), 373-392. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-02-2015-0014.

Shuman, K.M., & Appleby, K.M. (2016). Gender preference? National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I Student-Athletes and strength and conditioning coaches. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 30(10), 2924-2933. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000001384.

Szedlak, C., Batey, J., Smith, M.J., & Church, M. (2022). Examining experienced S&C coaches' reflections on the effectiveness of psychosocial behaviours in coaching. International Sport Coaching Journal, 9, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1123/iscj.2020-0092.

Szedlak, C., Smith, M.J., Day, M., & Callary, B. (2018). Using Vignettes to Analyse Potential Influences of Effective Strength and Conditioning Coaching on Athlete Development. The Sport Psychologist, 32, 199-209. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2017-0060.

Szedlak, C., Smith, M.J., Day, M.C., & Greenlees, I.A. (2015). Effective behaviours of strength and conditioning coaches as perceived by athletes. International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, 10(5), 967-984. https://doi.org/10.1260/1747-9541.10.5.967.

Taber, K.S. (2018). The Use of Cronbach's Alpha When Developing and Reporting Research Instruments in Science Education. Research in science education (Australasian Science Education Research Association), 48(6), 1273–1296. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-016-9602-2.

Terry, P.C. (1985). The coaching preferences of elite athletes competing at Universiade '83. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 9(4), 201-208. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/16670060_The_coaching_preferences_of_elite_athletes_competing_at_Universiade_'83.

Terry, P.C., & Howe, B.L. (1985). Coaching preferences of athletes. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 9(4), 188-193. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/16670058_Coaching_preferences_of_athletes.

Thomas, J.R., Martin, P.E., Etnier, J.L., & Silverman, S.J. (2023). Ethical issues in research and scholarship. In J.R. Thomas, P.E. Martin, J.L. Etnier, and S.J. Silverman (Eds.) Research Method in Physical Activity, (pp. 79-93). Champaign, IL, USA: Human Kinetics.

Tiberi, S., & Moody, J. (2020). An analysis of desirable attributes for strength and conditioning coaches as perceived by male and female population of collegiate athletes. International Journal of Physical Education, Fitness and Sports, 9(2), 16-29. https://doi.org/10.34256/ijpefs2023.

Tiberi, S., Esformes, J.I., Jennings, G., Cooper, S., & Moody, J. (2023). Preferred strength and conditioning leadership behaviours of NCAA Division I and II Collegiate student-athletes based on sex. International Journal of Physical Education, Fitness and Sports, 12(4), 23-35. https://doi.org/10.54392/ijpefs2343.

Witte, K.S. (2011). Coaching leadership preferences: Insight from the national collegiate athletic association Division III athlete. Journal of Coaching Education. 4(2), 73-87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jce.4.2.73

Yenen, E., Atamturk, H., & Atamturk, N. (2023). Exploring leadership behaviours of the coaches of champion teams. Frontiers in psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1091703.

Yukl, G. (1971). Toward a behavioural theory of leadership. Organisational behaviour and human performance, 6, 414-440.

Zhang, J.J., Jensen, B.E., & Mann, B.L. (1997). Modification and revision of the leadership scale for sport. Journal of Sport Behaviour, 20(1), 105-122.

Downloads

Additional Files

Published

2024-05-13

Issue

Vol. 3 No. 2 (2024): Journal of Coaching and Sports Science

Section

Articles

How to Cite

Tiberi, S., Esformes, J. I., Jennings, G., Cooper, S., & Moody, J. (2024). Exploring Coaching Leadership Behaviours in Strength and Conditioning Coaching: Preferences of NCAA Division I and II Collegiate Student-Athletes Based on Task Dependence. Journal of Coaching and Sports Science, 3(2), 76-89. https://doi.org/10.58524/002024336600